Teaching Children to Read: an Evidence Based Research

Introduction

In that location has ever considerable interest in exploring how to teach reading and thus bring pupils to appropriate levels of reading proficiency (EACEA/Eurydice, 2011). The National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (2000) identified basic skills that establish reading competency and the best practices in literacy instruction. More often than not speaking, different programs have been developed that propose different ways of targeting the educational activity of reading. The direct instruction method (Carnine and Kameenui, 1992; Chard and Jungjohann, 2006; Coyne et al., 2007), based on behavioral theory, is a form of teaching where the teacher is the main axis and works through modeling; this method explicitly uses practices for instruction reading that intermission the process down into modest units, and follows a clear sequence involving repetition and reinforcement. Scaffolding (Temple et al., 2011), based on constructivist principles, consists of having children build their own learning with the help and guidance of their teacher. Psychomotricity, the development of spatial orientation, handedness, and the growing awareness of i's trunk (Pinker, 2001; Scarborough, 2002; Slavin, 2003), together with respect for ane's own pace of learning, are practices based on maturational theory (Fons, 2008). Innatist theory focuses on teaching reading at an early historic period (Al Otaiba and Fuchs, 2002; De Arcangelo, 2003; Foorman et al., 2003; Fons, 2012; Pascual et al., 2013). Proponents of sociocultural theory promote practices that encourage family, social, cultural, and educational involvement, as all these volition play a role in a kid's reading development (Purcell-Gates et al., 2002; Fetsco and McClure, 2005; Porta and Ison, 2011; Greenhoot et al., 2014); hence the importance of providing a book-rich environment (Dickinson and Tabors, 2001) that is high in both quality and quantity (Porta, 2008). Finally, the evolution of phonological awareness through the educational activity of sounds is one of the premises of psycholinguistic theory (Pearson, 2001; Rayner et al., 2002; Fletcher-Flinn, 2014). Despite the beingness of countless different approaches for teaching reading, the results of international and national tests of bones reading skills [International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA); Reading Achievement, Progress in International Reading Literacy Report (Mullis et al., 2012; National Assessment of Educational Progress, 2015); Programme for International Educatee Cess (System for Economic Co-performance and Evolution, 2012, 2015)]; indicate that it is necessary to better and promote effective practices.

Prove-Based Practices for Teaching Reading

Scientific inquiry has demonstrated that the pedagogy of reading should begin at an early historic period through didactics practices designed and implemented to exercise and main basic skills that constitute reading competency every bit defined past the National Reading Panel (2000) (i.e., phonological awareness, alphabetic knowledge, vocabulary, fluency, and comprehension). Phonological awareness means the power to detect and manipulate audio segments of spoken words (Pufpaff, 2009). Findings on phonological awareness have shown that this is a fundamental skill in the early years of a kid's schooling. Many studies have confirmed that this skill is a good predictor of time to come reading operation (Porta et al., 2010; Suárez et al., 2013; Kjeldsen et al., 2014; Del Campo et al., 2015). Alphabetic noesis refers to the knowledge of the rules for grapheme-phoneme (G-P) and phoneme-grapheme (P-1000) conversion; fluency, which is described as the ability to read texts rapidly and accurately, using appropriate intonation within the reading context; vocabulary, i.e., learning the significant and use of words in a given context; and comprehension, which refers to a child's ability to reason about, reverberate on, and understand what they are reading (Jiménez et al., 2012). Instruction these essential components of reading not only helps children learn to read (National Reading Panel, 2000) information technology is also helpful for children at hazard of exhibiting learning difficulties (Adams, 2001; Foorman and Torgesen, 2001; Tunmer and Arrow, 2013). Numerous recommendations of instructional practices to promote these basic skills take emerged from research findings. The National Reading Console (2000) adult specific recommendations for activities to teach phonemic awareness. These include isolating, identifying, categorizing, substituting, adding, and deleting phonemes. In the aforementioned vein, it has been found that when ii or more tasks of segmenting (east.yard., dividing a word up into sounds) and deletion (e.m., removing a sound from a given word) are combined, the effect size is much greater.

With respect to alphabetic cognition, findings accept shown that information technology is better to combine the teaching of sounds with that of the printed letter (Ehri et al., 2001; Stevenson, 2004; Caravolas et al., 2005; Hatcher et al., 2006). It has been shown that the most effective of all the programs using unlike phonics methods to teach this skill for education reading are those that are: synthetic (converting letters to sounds, mixing sounds to course words), analytic (identifying words and their sounds), spelling-based (transforming sounds into letters), contextual (using sound-letter correspondence and finding unknown words in a text), and analogical (using parts of written words to find new ones) (National Reading Panel, 2000). In improver, it'southward of import to note that using a systematic instructional sequence (i.e., easier to more complex and almost common letters and alphabetic character patterns first) providing aplenty opportunities for practice and employing bear witness-based methods of phonics instruction results in better pupil outcomes (Armbruster et al., 2001).

Fluency is another skill that predicts reading success. Teachers should teach their pupils to read texts accurately, quickly, and effortlessly, using the right pronunciation (Nichols et al., 2008), and rapidly, precisely, and with the appropriate intonation (Allington, 1983). Information technology has been shown that guided oral educational activity, the employ of tutoring, and the involvement of the child'due south immediate environs accept a positive influence on rapid reading (National Reading Panel, 2000). Consolidating this skill likewise contributes to improving comprehension, equally the educatee can gratis up more than cerebral resource for understanding a text (National Constitute of Child Health and Human Development, 2000; Hirsch, 2007). Teachers need to utilise activities focused on: repeated reading of the same text (Rasinski, 2003), independent reading of advisedly selected text (Allington, 2000), or practicing expression (Schwanenflugel and Benjamin, 2012), and repeated oral reading with feedback (Armbruster et al., 2001).

Teaching vocabulary besides has a direct influence on reading comprehension and vice versa (Perfetti et al., 2005; Hirsch, 2007; Strasser et al., 2013). This skill should be taught early, and it should focus on the use of strategies such as the employ of new technologies, the indirect method, and repeated exposure to words and their meanings (Joshi, 2005; Perfetti et al., 2005; Hirst, 2007; Strasser et al., 2013). Instruction should include multiple exposures to a give-and-take, careful selection of words, deepening the meaning of the words, connecting familiar and new words and teaching compound or familiar words (Lane, 2014).

As for comprehension, divers equally the skill in which intentional thinking is adult, whereby the meaning of words is constructed through interaction between the text and the reader (Durkin, 1993), a number of practices have proven effective, such every bit: monitoring comprehension, cooperative learning, the use of graphic and semantic organizers, the utilise of question-and-respond formats, generating questions, recognizing story structure, and summarizing. In addition, teachers need to help children: activate their prior knowledge, provide ample opportunities to use comprehension strategies (i.e., lower, summarize), read and work with different types of texts (i.e., narratives, expository), use questions to facilitate word (Shanahan et al., 2010).

In sum, teachers need to incorporate activities aimed at helping children to discover the sounds of phonemes, associating sounds with the respective graphic symbols, creating a link between readings of texts or stories, working with previous knowledge and lexicon, this will help the development of skills such every bit: phonological sensation, alphabetic knowledge, fluency, comprehension and vocabulary (National Reading Console, 2000). It has been said that it is important not merely that teachers be aware of and understand these components, simply besides that they know how to work with them to contribute to reading success (Cunningham et al., 2009; Joshi et al., 2009; Kaiser et al., 2009; Podhajski et al., 2009). Nosotros must start find out how teachers evaluated really teach reading, and institute whether their educational activity practices are based on the recommendations of scientific research; this is the principal aim of the present study.

Materials and Methods

Nosotros employed systematic observation, which is widely used in a range of contexts (Castañer et al., 2013, 2016), as it fulfills the basic requirements proposed by Anguera (1979, 2003): habitual behavior, natural context, and perceptivity. These conditions are all guaranteed in the events tracked in our report. The pick of methodology is as well justified, as we used an ad hoc ascertainment instrument to record, clarify, and translate how teachers of the sample teach reading.

The observational design tin can exist classified equally Nomothetic/Follow-up/Multidimensional (N/F/M) (Blanco-Villaseñor et al., 2003; Sánchez-Algarra and Anguera, 2013; Portell et al., 2015), where nomothetic refers to the ascertainment of various different teachers; follow-upward refers to recording the behaviors or situations that arise over a period of time; and multidimensional refers to the fact that more than than i dimension of the participant'due south response is taken into account. Nosotros carried out not-participatory ascertainment of teachers on the island of Tenerife (Canary Islands, Spain), in the classroom context, while they were didactics their pupils how to read. Observation was agile, governed by scientific criteria, characterized by total perceptibility, and performed by direct observation of the film shot.

Participants

Our study involved six teachers aged 25 to fifty, with three to 25 years of teaching experience. Each of them interests us as a instance written report, individually, and without any pretension of generalizing the results.

The teachers were employed at dissimilar preschools and uncomplicated schools on the isle of Tenerife. Two of these schools were in a suburban area, ane was in a rural area and ane was in an urban area. The option criteria substantially involved ensuring the participants were teachers of language arts and that they spent an boilerplate of 1 hour each day on educational activity reading.

Materials

The classroom sessions were recorded using four digital video cameras, four stands and two recorders. Both hardware (2 complete computer workstations and 2 pairs of headphones) and software (Windows Movie Maker by Microsoft, for video editing) were used to detect the teachers' beliefs. For recording the information, nosotros used Match Vision 3.0 (Perea et al., 2006). The data quality analysis was done using Generalizability Study (GT) version ii.0.E (Ysewijn, 1996) and the (SAS Institute Inc, 1999) 9.ane statistical parcel. THEME (Magnusson, 1988) was used to analyze the teachers' behavioral patterns.

The observation of a natural context requires the employ of an observation instrument. The observation tool used here was ad hoc and combines a field format and systems of categories. The field format is formed by the dimensions of the instrument, and a organisation of categories has been constructed from each one of them.

This instrument was created using the information obtained from the reality observed, and the dimensions are based on innatist, maturational, behaviorist, sociocultural, cosmetic, repetitive, and psycholinguistic theories (see Suárez et al., 2013; Jiménez et al., 2014). Systems of categories are characterized by their loftier degree of construction and their accommodation to the previously defined research question (Anguera, 2003). They also respect the assumptions of mutual exclusivity (e.g., a unmarried beliefs cannot be associated with two categories) and exhaustiveness (east.g., a category system covers all possible behaviors ascribed to information technology). This instrument covers the practices carried out past teachers when didactics reading, and is made upwardly of 14 dimensions. Each criterion has allowed the construction of an exhaustive and mutually exclusive category system.

Below is a presentation of the musical instrument used in this study (run into Table 1). The acronyms shown in the following table (which reverberate the diction of the categories in Spanish) were used to record the beliefs in the Friction match Vision Studio plan (Perea et al., 2006).

Tabular array 1. Ascertainment musical instrument of practices used for teaching reading.

The dimensions refer to whether the teacher carried out pedagogy practices based on: phonological awareness, alphabetic knowledge, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension activities. In add-on, the observation instrument includes other reading teaching practices based on the employ of resources, reinforcement, feedback, modeling, guided oral instruction, homework, reading and writing, and psychomotricity activities.

Procedure

Before the recordings were made, authorization was obtained from both the teachers and the pupils' parents. All participants provided a written informed consent prior to their participation. The dates and times of the recording sessions were scheduled in advance (taking into account the school timetable). On the commencement days, the cameras were tested to ensure they were being used properly. Afterwards, the cameras were prepare in the classrooms 10 minutes prior to the start of the agreed session.

Two cameras and their stands were used to tape each teacher. One photographic camera was gear up up at the dorsum of the classroom, with a full view of the space, to record all instances of instructor-student and pupil-student interaction. Another photographic camera was placed near the instructor's desk, to record teacher-educatee interaction and offering a more detailed observation of the teaching. A full of 10 hours of recordings were made for each teacher (1 hr a day, twice a week) in December 2011 and January 2012. Overall, 42 sessions were used in this study.

Over the class of this procedure, ii observers received four training sessions in the apply of Match Vision Studio Premium (Perea et al., 2006). Once the grooming was completed, each observer viewed the aforementioned sessions on different occasions (with xv days in between viewings), and so that both intra- and inter-rater reliability could be calculated.

Information Analysis

Data quality was analyzed with Generalizability Theory (Cronbach et al., 1972) to calculate inter- and intra-rater reliability, and the validity of the instrument used. A measurement plan was besides adult to summate the optimal number of sessions required to run the report.

For the measurement programme, the results showed that the accented and relative generalizability measures were acceptable (at 0.970 and 0.989) at 30 sessions, and that xl sessions were needed to achieve 0.977 and 0.992, respectively. In this sense, a total of 42 sessions were used to have the same number of sessions per teacher.

Regarding inter- and intra-observer reliability, a iv-faceted SRC/O (Session, Criterion, Category/Observer) design was used, and assay showed the greatest pct of variability to be related to the Criterion facet (33%), while the Observer facet showed no variability at all. The absolute generalizability coefficient was 0.999, and the relative coefficient was also 0.999, showing a loftier inter-rater reliability.

With respect to the intra-rater reliability, using a four-faceted SRC/M (Session, Criterion, Category/Moment) pattern, analysis showed that 32% of variability corresponded to the Session facet and 33% corresponded to Benchmark, while Moment showed no variability. The absolute and relative generalizability coefficients obtained for Observer ane were both 0.999. The absolute and relative coefficients for Observer two were both 0.997, showing high intra-rater reliability too.

Analyses of validity showed low measures of both accented (0.000) and relative (0.000) generalizability, which is a clear sign that the exam meets specificity criteria.

Next, we analyzed the frequency and duration of the behaviors exhibited by the teachers participating in the study. To determine whether their practices were in line with what the inquiry recommends, nosotros analyzed the frequency and duration of each teacher's utilize of dimensions mentioned above.

Finally, the T-patterns were analyzed to report the instructional sequence for each teacher. T-blueprint detection is used to place hidden patterns within sequential datasets (Magnusson, 1996, 2000, 2005; Magnusson et al., 2015), and in several fields (Brill et al., 2015; Burgoon et al., 2015; Castañer et al., 2015). A temporal design (T-pattern) is essentially a combination of events that occur in the same order with temporal distances between each other that remain relatively invariant in relation to the null hypothesis that each component is independent and is randomly distributed over fourth dimension. The basic premise here is that the interactive flow or chain of behavior is governed by structures of variable stability that can be visualized by detecting these underlying T-patterns. We considered patterns that had a minimum occurrence of seven and p < 0.05.

Results

The results showed that the practice used most was feedback, followed by the use of resource, fluency activities, and comprehension previous knowledge activities. Used to a lesser extent were reading-writing activities, (tangible or verbal) reinforcement of correct operation of exercises and reading, alphabetic knowledge activities such every bit: teaching sounds, alphabetic character names, and rules using a visual aid (see Table 2).

Table 2. Data on the frequency and duration of teacher'south reading practices.

We also saw that none of the teachers used practices based on the recommendations of the National Reading Console (2000) more than 50% of the fourth dimension. Measured in terms of instruction time, all the teachers spent <50% of their time pedagogy the five essential components of reading, with the exception of Instructor E, who spent 70.46% of class fourth dimension teaching these components. The data as well showed that the about common do was fluency (run into Figure 1), followed by literal or inference comprehension activities (run across Figure 2), and comprehension previous knowledge activities (encounter Effigy 3). We besides found that education alphabetic knowledge activities (encounter Effigy four), phonological awareness activities (come across Figure 5) and vocabulary activities (run across Figure six) were the components addressed the least in class.

Effigy ane. Nautical chart showing the pct, frequency and elapsing of six instructor'southward practice in fluency activities.

Figure 2. Chart showing the percent, frequency and duration of six teacher'south practice in teaching of functional knowledge of reading.

Effigy 3. Chart showing the percentage, frequency and duration of six teacher's practice in comprehension activities.

Figure 4. Chart showing the percentage, frequency and duration of half dozen teacher'southward practise in alphabetic knowledge activities.

Effigy v. Chart showing the percentage, frequency and elapsing of six teacher'due south practice in phonological awareness activities.

Effigy half-dozen. Nautical chart showing the percent, frequency and elapsing of half dozen teacher'due south practice in vocabulary activities.

To observe whether these practices formed part of a work routine, we analyzed the T-patterns of the 6 teachers. The results showed that Teacher A was constantly working with comprehension and vocabulary, but that his activities focused exclusively on asking questions and education the meaning of words. Instructor B's work routine was based on using activities for developing the five essential components of reading. Thus, in this classroom nosotros observed instruction based on teaching fluency through activities such equally rapid, accurate, and precise reading and individual/group reading, as well as joint comprehension and vocabulary work in the form of activities such as relating illustrations to text, doing exercises from the book, request questions, and studying the meanings of words. Also typical for this teacher's work was running many unlike activities for teaching phonological awareness and alphabetic knowledge. Teacher C worked start on alphabetic knowledge and then on phonological sensation. No other all-time practices were observed in that teacher'due south classroom. Teacher D taught comprehension and vocabulary, but did not demonstrate any advisable practices related to developing fluency, phonological sensation or alphabetic knowledge. Teacher E's work routine was focused on activities involving rapid, fluent, and accurate reading as well as private/grouping and silent reading. There were no other all-time practices identified in this teacher's sequence of instruction (see Figure 7). The selection of this pattern is due to the fact that it is the teacher who uses most of his time to teach testify-based components. If we clarify the results, nosotros notice a stable T-pattern over fourth dimension. The T-Patterns are plotted as dendrograms, the interpretation is performed from meridian to bottom, and offset with the most elementary levels of the dendrogram. The T-blueprint that is analyzed, consists of two dendrograms. The commencement one indicates that Teacher E works comprehension by request the children to relate their experiences (LPNEV) and reviewing the contents worked in the classroom in relation to reading (REPA). Later, he uses positive reinforcement (P_VM) and negative reinforcement (NE_VE). Too, every bit for the feedback, he corrects the educatee when he is wrong (CLPDS), he indicates where the error is when reading (SDSE), provides examples (PEJP) and rejects when he is wrong (AA_NO). The second dendrogram indicates that the teacher works fluency through the private reading aloud and fast (LGVAR), group and silent (LGSIL), and fast reading (LR). In relation to reading and writing, this teacher firstly asks the children to read and so write the discussion (LPLE) or phrases (LFLE) and vice versa (EPL-EFL). He also uses activities such as dictation (DICPF), copying (CLPF) consummate words or phrases (CA). In addition, he instructs with activities that develop psychomotricity, such as orientation in space (OE_AB) or time (OT_AM), rhythm with rhythmic sequences (R_SR) and body schema (EC_CP). Teacher F used practices based on pedagogy phonological awareness and alphabetic noesis activities such as: saying words that start with a given sound, dividing words up into syllables, rhyming, and teaching rules using aids. This teacher also worked on fluency activities, request the children to read out loud using different combinations as well as quickly, accurately, and precisely. No activities aimed at developing vocabulary and comprehensions were observed in this classroom.

Figure seven. T-patterns. Distribution of instruction sequence for teacher Due east. You can see the significant of acronyms in the observation musical instrument of practices used for teaching reading (Table 1).

We can conclude that no instructor followed a sequence of instruction that was based on teaching all of the components recommended in the scientific literature. 3 teachers did not consistently work on vocabulary or comprehension. Three did not include activities for working on phonological sensation or alphabetic knowledge in their practice. Nosotros also found that some of the activities run for some of the components were insufficient. For instance, there was no use in certain cases of practices involving isolation, identification, or deletion, and in some cases the teachers even confused phonological awareness with alphabetic cognition: our observations included situations where the teachers were teaching this skill with alphabet cards hanging on the wall for all the pupils to see, even though they were only meant to exist instruction the sounds. For alphabetic knowledge, the activities focused on teaching the name of the alphabetic character, the dominion, and rhymes.

Discussion

The instance studies presented here through observational methodology have allowed usa to analyze if the reading teaching practices used by the teachers in the classroom context are evidence based. That is, nosotros take tried to investigate if these practices promote the skills prescribed by the NRP (i.due east., alphabetic knowledge, vocabulary, fluency, comprehension, phonological awareness).

Our findings showed that none of our teachers used practices based on the recommendations of the National Reading Panel (2000) more than than fifty% of the time. What is more, the T-pattern assay showed that no instructor studied, had an instruction sequence that was based on some of the key components. The practice that was used the most was feedback, followed by the utilize of resources, fluency activities, and previous cognition comprehension activities. To a lesser extent, we saw the use of reading-writing activities, reinforcement aimed at providing (tangible or verbal) praise, reading and writing, and alphabetic noesis activities. In one of the few studies conducted in this field, Tolchinsky and y Ríos (2009) found that teachers used explicit, early, systematic teaching. In another study, in which Barragán and Medina (2008) observed practices in six preschool classrooms, the results showed that practices differ as a part of how the classroom is organized and what material is available. As well, Ríos et al. (2010), working with 2 3rd and fourth grade teachers, identified ii profiles of practise types: situational (e.g., working on the basis of situations that arise in the classroom, using newspapers, messages, etc.) and instructional (e.k., instruction letter names, linking messages with sounds). Too worth mentioning is the piece of work by Fons-Esteve and Buisán-Serradell (2012), who used natural ascertainment and systematic recording to analyze the practices of 71 preschool and elementary school teachers. Their results showed that 39% of these teachers used instructional practices, xviii% used multidimensional practices, and 14% used situational practices. Looking at all this research, we see that the main strategies analyzed focused on the instructional characteristics, and classified practices as instructional, situational or multidimensional and in terms of the available resources.

Nevertheless, a mutual denominator that nosotros observed in the abovementioned studies and which we present here was a far cry from the activities recommended by the National Reading Panel (2000), which insists, for case, on the need to teach alphabetic knowledge through methods that are synthetic (converting letters to sounds, mixing sounds to class words), analytic (identifying words and their sounds), spelling-based (transforming sounds into letters), contextual (using sound-alphabetic character correspondence and finding unknown words in a text), and analogical (using parts of written words to find new ones). With respect to teaching vocabulary, we just observed practices related to teaching the significant of words and using the dictionary. It has been recommended that when teaching this component, new technologies should also be used (Ito, 2009; Smeets et al., 2014; Bus et al., 2015), as well as the indirect method and repeated exposure to words and their pregnant (Daniels, 1994, 1996; Dole et al., 1995); likewise, this component should exist taught early on to promote reading success and comprehension (Joshi, 2005). With respect to comprehension, simply three teachers carried out activities of this type, such as linking an illustration with a text, request questions or summarizing. These exercises should be complemented with monitoring comprehension, cooperative learning, the use of graphic and semantic organizers and recognizing story structure, all of which are activities that accept been shown to predict reading success (National Reading Panel, 2000). These results are in line with those obtained in other studies (Moats and Foorman, 2003; Foorman and Moats, 2004; Moats, 2009), where information technology was found that teachers were non using evidence-based practices.

Ane alternative would be to promote professional development amid teachers to help them keep their knowledge upwards-to-appointment. We are enlightened that participation rates in this type of grooming are low, as evidenced by the information obtained through the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) (Mullis et al., 2007); which showed that teachers in Spain receive less preparation in instruction reading than their counterparts in Bulgaria or Lithuania. The fact is that instructor quality predicts pupils' academic success (European Commission, 2008). Teachers should therefore be given the tools they need to teach properly, using inquiry-based practices. Training programs should therefore accost both the fundamentals of theory and educational research on the development and structure of linguistic communication and reading; offer effective strategies and materials for pedagogy reading and writing; teach techniques for evaluating a student's reading performance as measured by the different components; expose teachers to new technologies; and help teachers strike the right balance betwixt theory and practise (IRA, 2007). A articulate example of this can exist constitute in the DIPELEC (Diploma de Especialización en Enseñanza de la Lectura), the first postgraduate diploma in reading teaching to be offered in Spain (http://fg.ull.es/grados-posgrados/estudios/diploma-de-especializacion-en-ensenanza-de-la-lectura/). The difficulty now lies in convincing teachers of the need to obtain upwardly-to-appointment training and change their consolidated teaching practices. Including best practices in legislation and offer compensation to teachers might serve as a skillful showtime. A limitation of this report was non analyze how these practices could influence reading performance amidst schoolchildren. Future lines of research should explore this aspect.

Author Contributions

NS: This writer'south grant was used to run the projection Integrando creencias y prácticas de enseñanza de la lectura (Integrating beliefs and practices about teaching reading), ref: PSI2009-11662. She participated actively in the observation of the teachers, carried out the analyses of the teaching practices, and was responsible for the literature review and the drafting of this manuscript. CS: Supervised the pattern and grooming of the study, was responsible for handling and analyzing the data, offered guidance on methodology, and helped review the manuscript. JJ: Every bit primary investigator, supervised the projection and the preparation of the written report, offered guidance for the theoretical component, and was responsible for reviewing this manuscript. MTA: Carried out the analyses of the teaching practices using T-patterns, offered guidance on methodology, and helped review this manuscript. All authors approved the last version of this article.

Conflict of Involvement Statement

The authors declare that the inquiry was conducted in the absenteeism of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Acknowledgments

This enquiry has been funded through the Plan Nacional I+D+i (R+D+i National Research Plan of the Castilian Ministry of Economics and Competitiveness), project ref.: PSI2009-11662, with JJ as PI. We gratefully acknowledge the support of the Spanish regime through its Programme Nacional I+D+i (R+D+i National Research Plan of the Spanish Ministry of Economics and Competitiveness), project ref: PSI2015-65009-R, with JJ as principal investigator.

Nosotros also gratefully admit the support of two Castilian government projects (Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad): (1) La actividad física y el deporte como potenciadores del estilo de vida saludable: Evaluación del comportamiento deportivo desde metodologíequally no intrusivas [Grant number DEP2015-66069- P]; (two) Avances metodológicos y tecnológicos en el estudio observacional del comportamiento deportivo [PSI2015-71947- REDP]; and the support of the Generalitat de Catalunya Inquiry Group, GRUP DE RECERCA E INNOVACIÓ EN DISSENYS (GRID). Tecnología i aplicació multimedia i digital als dissenys observacionals [Grant number 2014 SGR 971]. Lastly, quaternary author also admit the back up of University of Barcelona (Vice-Chancellorship of Doctorate and Research Promotion).

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Source: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00007/full